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There are many different ways to present the many and varied contributions of ETS to large-scale group assessments. We have chosen to do so by topic. Topics may be considered as milestones or major events in the development of group technology. We have listed the topics chronologically to stress the symbiotic relationship of information needs and technical advancements. The information demands spur technical developments, and they in turn spur policy maker demands for information. This chapter begins by looking at the early 1960s, when the use of punch cards and IBM scoring machines limited the available technology. It leads up to the spread of large-scale group technology in use around the world.
In Sect. 8.2, Overview of Technological Contributions, 12 topics are presented. These topics cover the last half-century of development in this field, beginning with early assessments in the 1960s. ETS has had substantial influence in many but not all of these topics. All topics are included to show the contributions of other organizations to this field. Each topic is described in a few paragraphs. Some important technical contributions are mentioned but not fully described. The point here is to give an overview of large-scale group assessments and the various forces that have produced the present technology.
In Sect. 8.3, ETS and Large-Scale Assessment, gives the details of technical contributions. Each topic in Sect. 8.2 is given an individual subsection in Sect. 8.3. These subsections describe the topic in some detail. Section 8.3 is intended to be technical—but not too technical. The names of individual contributors are given along with references and URLs. Interested readers will find many opportunities to gain further knowledge of the technical contributions.
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Topics will vary substantially in amount of space devoted to them depending on the degree of ETS contribution. In some cases, a topic is jointly attributable to an ETS and a non-ETS researcher.
Finally, there is an appendix, which describes in some detail the basic psychometric model used in the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). This also contains a record of the many years of comparing alternative methods for ways to improve the present methodology.