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View Fadiman 11-12 Discussion from ANTH 102 at University of South Carolina Beaufort. How does the Hmong folktale about how Shee Yee fought with the 9 evil dab.

• Consuming Grief Beth Conklin Pdf

1. CONKLIN-Vanderbilt University. The Wari'1 (Pakaa Nova) are an. Person's consanguineal kin.2. Among the Wari', however, the dead person's affines ideally consumed all of the roasted flesh. This article focuses on how mortuary cannibalism fit into Wari' experiences of grief and mourning. My approach traces.
2. Mourning the death of loved ones and recovering from their loss are universal human experiences, yet the grieving process is as different between cultures as it is among individuals. As late as the 1960s, the Wari' Indians of the western Amazonian rainforest ate the roasted flesh of their dead as an expression of.

Exocannibalism (from Greekexo-, 'from outside' and cannibalism, 'to eat humans'), as opposed to endocannibalism, is the consumption of flesh outside one's close social group—for example, eating one's enemy. When done ritually, it has been associated with being a means of imbibing valued qualities of the victim or as an act of final violence against the deceased in the case of sociopathy,^[1] as well as a symbolic expression of the domination of an enemy in warfare.^[2] Such practices have been documented in cultures including the Aztecs from Mexico, the Carib and the Tupinambá from South America.

Historically, it has also been used as a practical expediency in especially desperate attritional or guerrilla warfare when the extreme hunger and the abundance of humans being killed coincide to create conditions ripe for cannibalism.^[3] Some viewed the practice of exocannibalism as an act of predation^[4] tying the action to more of a prey versus predator scenario than one of ceremonial meaning. Exocannibalism has also historically been viewed as a way to acquire the strength and ability of a defeated enemy.^[5] It serves as a final act to either intake or extinguish the existence of an enemy. Notably, the cultures that view exocannibalism as a form of predation do not view the act as taboo.^{[citation needed]}

• 2List of cultures known for exocannibalism

Cultural practice[edit]

Consuming Grief Beth Conklin Pdf

Cannibalism is something that has been found wherever and whenever humans have formed societies. Traditionally, accounts of cannibalism were found embedded in myths and folklore as a common motive that indicated people were less than fully human. Exocannibalism in the form of eating enemies is usually done to express hostility and domination toward the victim.^[6] The perpetrator eats their victim to inflict ultimate indignity and humiliation. It has also been practiced along with headhunting and scalping to display war trophies. John Kantner, an archaeologist who studied alleged cannibalism in the American Southwest, believes that when resources decrease the competition of societies increased and exocannibalism can ensue.^[1] Exocannibalism would generally be considered to be the opposite of endocannibalism, but they are both forms of ritual cannibalism. There have been no previous accounts of a culture practicing both forms of ritual cannibalism, aside from a recent study that confirmed the Wari', an Amazonian tribe in Brazil, practiced both forms.^[7]

List of cultures known for exocannibalism[edit]

• Africa
• Asia
• North America
  • Nuuchahnulth (Nootka)
  • Ancestral Puebloans (Anasazi)
• South America
• Oceania

Wari[edit]

The Wari people of South America are known for their practice of both endocannibalism and exocannibalism. Endocannibalism had the ability to serve as a form of recognition and respect for the dead. Exocannibalism on the other hand was part of warfare. The Wari had very separate motives behind why they performed each of these modes of cannibalism but both forms had the same basic steps of roasting either flesh or bone and then eating it.^[8] Wari warriors would kill enemies such as the Brazilians, Bolivians, and members of enemy tribes. The Wari consumed these enemies as a means of transforming them into a form of prey. They viewed warfare cannibalism as a form of predation or hunting. They used exocannibalism as a means by which to label their enemies as subhuman and make their flesh as unimportant as that of any other animal that was typically killed for food.^[9] This practice of cannibalism was continued by the Wari people until the 1960s.^[10]

Fiji[edit]

The people of Fiji are also documented as having participated in exocannibalism as a form of ritualistic behavior, though history of this is typically hidden by European modification.^[11] From Fijian legend, the development of the island was due to a god who brought with him cannibalism and warfare. When he arrived on the island, he then married into the single indigenous family. That family then populated the island. This legend along with cannibalism continued into the reality of Fijian people. During wartime, chiefs were able to have their pick of the warriors and soldiers who were killed, seeking out the most famous of those slain. The rest of the soldiers killed that the chief did not want would be consumed by the rest of the common people. This form of consumption of the dead was not out of need but instead served as a means by which to assert their power over a conquered people. Consumption of human flesh was not viewed as taboo, but instead was viewed as an act of dining with the gods or dining on the food of gods.^[12][13] Along with consuming the flesh to show domination over slain enemies, cannibalism was also part of both political and religious rituals performed by the Fijian people. Cannibalism persisted in the Fijian culture because of the cultural beliefs regarding it.^[14]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

• Biasing Cannibalism in Anthropology by Robyn Neufeldt (2012)

1. ^ ^abCannibalism, Encyclopedia of Death and Dying.
2. ^James W. Dow, CannibalismArchived 2007-08-07 at the Wayback Machine, Reprinted from Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, Vol. 1. Barbara A. Tenenbaum, ed. Pp. 535-537. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons^{[infringing link?]}
3. ^Tanaka, Yuki. Hidden horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II, Westview Press, 1996, p.127.
4. ^Menget, Patrik (1985): Guerre, Sociétés et Vision du Monde dans le basses Terres de L'Amerique du Sud. Jalons pour une étude comparative. In: Journal de la Société des Américanistes 71: 129-141.
5. ^Davis, R. (2008). You Are What You Eat: Cannibalism, Autophagy and the Case of Armin Meiwes. Territories of Evil, 45, 151.
6. ^Neufeldt, Robyn (2012). Biasing Cannibalism in Anthropology.
7. ^Travis-Henikoff, Carole A (2008). Dinner with a Cannibal. Santa Monica, CA: Santa Monica Press. p. 165. ISBN9781595800305.
8. ^Consuming Grief: Compassionate Cannibalism in an Amazonian Society. Beth A. Conklin. Austin, Texas: University Of Texas, 2001
9. ^Conklin B (1997) Consuming Images: Representations of Cannibalism on the Amazonian Frontier. Anthropological Quarterly, 70(2), 68-78. doi:10.2307/3317507
10. ^Vilaça A. Relations between Funerary Cannibalism and Warfare Cannibalism: The Question of Predation. Ethnos: Journal Of Anthropology [serial online]. March 2000;65(1):83-106. Available from: Academic Search Premier, Ipswich, MA. Accessed November 30, 2017.
11. ^Hooper, S. (2003). Cannibals Talk: A Response to Obeyesekere & Arens (AT 19,5). Anthropology Today, 19(6), 20-20. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/3695244
12. ^Sahlins MD. 1983. Raw women, cooked men, and other ‘great things’ of the Fiji Islands. The Ethnography of Cannibalism, P Brown, D Tuzin (eds). Society for Psychological Anthropology, University of California Press: Berkeley.
13. ^Toren C. 1998. Cannibalism and compassion: Transformations in Fijian concepts of the Person. Common Worlds and Single Lives: Constituting Knowledge in Pacific Societies, V Keck (ed.). Berg: Oxford.
14. ^Ortiz de Montellano BR. 1978. Aztec cannibalism: An ecological necessity? Science 200: 611–617.

Endocannibalism is a practice of eating the flesh of a human being from the same community (tribe, social group or society), usually after they have died.^[1] Endocannibalism has also been used to describe the consumption of relics in a mortuary context.^[2]

As a cultural practice[edit]

Herodotus (3.38) mentions funerary cannibalism among the Callatiae, a tribe of India.^[3] Also, the Aghoris of northern India consume the flesh of the dead floated in the Ganges in pursuit of immortality and supernatural powers.^[4]

It is believed that some South American indigenous cultures, such as the Mayoruna people, practiced endocannibalism in the past.^[5] The Amahuaca Indians of Peru picked particles of bone out of the ashes of a cremation fire, ground them with corn, and drank as a kind of gruel.^[6] For the Wari' people in western Brazil, endocannibalism is an act of compassion where the roasted remains of fellow Wari' are consumed in a mortuary setting;^[7] ideally, the affines would consume the entire corpse, and rejecting the practice would be offensive to the direct family members.^[7]Ya̧nomamö consumed the ground-up bones and ashes of cremated kinsmen in an act of mourning; this is still classified as endocannibalism, although, strictly speaking, 'flesh' is not eaten.^[8] Such practices were generally not believed to have been driven by need for protein or other food.^[5]

Medical implications[edit]

Kuru is a type of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) caused by prions that are found in humans.^[9] Human prion diseases come in sporadic, genetic and infectious forms. Kuru was the first infectious human prion disease discovered.^[10] It spread through the Fore people of Papua New Guinea, in which relatives consumed the bodies of the deceased to return the 'life force' of the deceased to the hamlet.^[11] Kuru was 8 to 9 times more prevalent in women and children than in men at its peak because, while the men of the village took the choice cuts, the women and children would eat the rest of the body, including the brain, where the prion particles were particularly concentrated.^[12] The kuru epidemic, which is recorded to have begun in the 1920s, is believed to have been started by the consumption of a single individual with kuru, which then spread through the population. Oral history records that cannibalism began within the Fore in the late 19th century. Recent research at University College London identified a gene that protects against prion diseases, by studying the Fore people.^[13]

Currently there is no treatment to cure or even treatment to control kuru, but there are numerous programs being funded by universities and national institutes, such as the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). This institute is currently funding research into the genetic and cellular process behind the development and transmission of kuru and other TSE diseases.^[14]

Prehistory of endocannibalism controversy[edit]

Whether or not endocannibalism was commonplace through much of human prehistory remains controversial.

A team led by Michael Alpers, a lifelong investigator of kuru,^[15] found genes that protect against similar prion diseases were widespread, suggesting that such endocannibalism could have once been common around the world.^[16][17]

However, a later study by Simon Mead et al. of the University College London^[18] has since shown that the protective G127V variant of the prion protein gene PRNP is only commonplace in the areas with the highest incidence of kuru; it is not commonplace in the global population. The relatively rare (but widespread) occurrence of G127V in the global population could therefore be explained as random mutation. This is evidence that cannibalism may not have been widespread among humanity, as the kuru disease is the only known prion disease that spreads by human cannibalism. Were cannibalism widespread, G127V would have to be commonplace by evolutionary necessity – but it is not. The only way by which cannibalism could have been widespread would be if kuru was not the only prion to spread by human cannibalism.^[19]

List of cultures known for endocannibalism[edit]

• Africa
• Asia
• Oceania
• South America

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^Vilaca, Aparecida (2000). 'Relations between Funerary Cannibalism and Warfare Cannibalism: The Question of Predation'. Ethnos. 65 (1): 83–106. doi:10.1080/001418400360652.
2. ^Metcalf, Peter (1 January 1987). 'Wine of the Corpse: Endocannibalism and the Great Feast of the Dead in Borneo'. Representations (17): 96–109. doi:10.2307/3043794. JSTOR3043794.
3. ^cowie, ashley. 'Bizarre, Brutal, Macabre And Downright Weird Ancient Death Rituals'. Ancient Origins. Retrieved 7 February 2019.
4. ^'Indian doc focuses on Hindu cannibal sect'. Today.com. Associated Press. 27 October 2005. Retrieved 1 April 2016.
5. ^ ^abDorn, Georgette M. & Tenenbaum, Barbara A. (1996). Encyclopedia of Latin American history and culture. New York: C. Scribner's Sons. pp. 535–7. ISBN978-0-684-19253-6. Archived from the original on 7 August 2007. Retrieved 5 August 2007.
6. ^Dole, Gertrude (1962). 'Division of Anthropology: Endocannibalism Among the Amahuaca Indians'. Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences. 24 (5 Series II): 567–73. doi:10.1111/j.2164-0947.1962.tb01432.x.
7. ^ ^abConklin, Beth (2001). Consuming Grief. University of Texas Press.
8. ^'Endocannibalism of the Yanomami'. Users.rcn.com. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
9. ^Wadsworth, J. D. F.; Joiner, S.; Linehan, J. M.; Desbruslais, M.; Fox, K.; Cooper, S.; Cronier, S.; Asante, E. A.; Mead, S.; Brandner, S.; Hill, A. F.; Collinge, J. (2008). 'Kuru prions and sporadic Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease prions have equivalent transmission properties in transgenic and wild-type mice'. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (10): 3885–90. Bibcode:2008PNAS.105.3885W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0800190105. JSTOR25461336. PMC2268835. PMID18316717.
10. ^Haïk, Stéphane; Brandel, Jean-Philippe (1 August 2014). 'Infectious prion diseases in humans: Cannibalism, iatrogenicity and zoonoses'. Infection, Genetics and Evolution. 26: 303–312. doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2014.06.010. PMID24956437.
11. ^Diamond JM (1997). Guns, germs, and steel: the fates of human societies. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 208. ISBN978-0-393-03891-0.
12. ^Kuru at eMedicine
13. ^'A Tribe In Papua New Guinea Reveals The Upside Of Cannibalism'. 11 June 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
14. ^'Kuru Information Page: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)'. www.ninds.nih.gov. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
15. ^'A life of determination'. Med.monash.edu.au. 27 February 2009. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
16. ^Mead, Simon; Stumpf, Michael P. H.; Whitfield, Jerome; Beck, Jonathan A.; Poulter, Mark; Campbell, Tracy; et al. (2003). 'Balancing selection at the prion protein gene consistent with prehistoric kurulike epidemics'. Science. 300 (5619): 640–3. Bibcode:2003Sci..300.640M. doi:10.1126/science.1083320. PMID12690204.
17. ^Danny Kingsley (11 April 2003). 'Genes suggest cannibalism common in human past'. ABC Science Online. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
18. ^Mead, Simon; Whitfield, Jerome; Poulter, Mark; Shah, Paresh; Uphill, James; Campbell, Tracy; Al-Dujaily, Huda; Hummerich, Holger; Beck, Jon; Mein, Charles A.; Verzilli, Claudio; Whittaker, John; Alpers, Michael P.; Collinge, John (2009). 'A Novel Protective Prion Protein Variant that Colocalizes with Kuru Exposure'(PDF). New England Journal of Medicine. 361 (21): 2056–65. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0809716. PMID19923577.
19. ^Liberski, Pawel (2013). 'Kuru: A Journey Back in Time from Papua New Guinea to the Neanderthals' Extinction'. Pathogens. 2 (3): 472–505. doi:10.3390/pathogens2030472. PMC4235695. PMID25437203.